:parmar Nidhi Shamjibhai
Semester : 2 , M. A part 1
Paper : literary Theory & Criticism & Indian Aesthetic
(Paper no 109)
✍️ ~Class Assignment :
Q -1) write short note on vakrokti given by kuntak
Introduction :
Kuntaka’s Vakrokti theory is a classical Sanskrit literary theory that focuses on the concept of “oblique expression” in poetry. According to Kuntaka, the essence of poetry lies in its ability to present ideas in a figurative, indirect, or stylistically unique manner, rather than through plain, literal language. He believed that all literary beauty comes from the use of creative twists in language, which make ordinary thoughts striking and aesthetically appealing.
Kuntaka identified six levels of Vakrokti, ranging from phonetic and lexical to syntactic and contextual expressions, showing how poets can artfully manipulate words and structure to enhance the charm of their work. In essence, Vakrokti theory emphasizes that the distinctive, unconventional expression of an idea is what distinguishes poetry from ordinary speech.
About the kuntak : and vakrokti- jivitam
Kuntaka is the originator of the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit literary theory. He came after
Anandvardhan of the 9th century and before Abhinavagupta of the 10th century. His time was the time of high merit of Indian poetics. Dhananjaya and Rajashekhara were his contemporary theorists. The theorists who appeared in the time of Kuntaka contributed a lot to what is in different shape is considered as modern theories of literature and language.
Anjalika Mukhopadhyay informs in her Bangla translation of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam that, the manuscript of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam was appeared as final version with the initiative and immense work done by Sushil Kumar Dey in 1922. This manuscript was found as incomplete in four chapters. Some scholars assume this book has its fifth chapter also but it is not proved yet. Scholars assume that Kuntak was a Kashmiri, because some hints were found in this regard. It is also assumed that Kunataka was alive in the time between Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta. He appeared before Mahimbhatta, as Mahimbhatta mentioned about him in different Slokas. If Mahimbhatta came in between 1020-1060 then Kuntaka was there in between 1000-1030. Kuntaka never mentioned Abhinavagupta and Abhinavagupta also never mentioned Kuntaka; though he talked about Vakrokti. It means either they were contemporary to each other or Kuntaka came after Abhinavagupta. Mahimbhatta, Hemachandra and Bhoja told that Kuntaka was the author of the Karika and Britti of his Vakrokti-Jivitam, though some scholars have doubt on this because the style of language found in the Karika and the Britti is completely different.
History of vakrokti jivitam :
The theory of Vakrokti is found even before Kuntaka had made it sophisticated and scientific with his rare talent. Bhamaha among the theorists who talked about Vakrokti is most ancient. Kuntaka primarily adopted Bhamaha’s idea of Vakrokti. Rudrat in his Kavyalankara (9thcentury) also talked about Vakrokti. Vakrokti was generally perceived as a Shabdalankar only. But it did not have much significance beyond its significance as Shabdlankar in Bhamaha, Dandin and Bamana understands. As an alamkara Vakrokti was very inclusive to Bhamaha. He included all types of alamkara under the term of Vakrokti. According to Bhamaha Vakrokti is the soul of poetry. The way words become different from daily conversation and gives pleasure to the mind of the rasika or one who accomplishes poetry is vakrokti. Bhamaha did not accept Swabhabokti as a type of alamkara. But
Dandin accepted both Swabhavokti and vakrokti as alamkara. He believed poetry means alamkara. If the daily use of language is reformulated with alamkara it becomes vakrokti and that vakrokti is led by Slesha. And this is how vakrokti creates beauty in poetry.
Sreenivas Rao in his work on Kuntaka and Indian poetics says that “later, Rudrata treats
Vakrokti as a mere play of words or pretended speech”, which means that the word is meant for one thing and it is understood by the readers as another thing. It happens because of the voice and modulation of the reader of that particular poem. This difference in voice is known as Kaku, which according to Rao is ‘peculiar intonation’ (Rao, Sreenivas;). And this changes the meaning of the word. It also happens for the word having multiple meanings or at least two meanings and each meaning has its logical implications which is known as Slesha. Rao added that Vamana
observes Vakrokti as an Artha-Alamkara where the hinted meaning of the word or lakshana is
replaced by the similarity or Sadrishya and therefore, to Vamana Vakrokti is nothing but a
metaphor. Hence the Vakrokti as an extended poetic term proposed by Bhamaha and Dandin
appeared as a limited term and a figure of speech only to Rudrata and Vamana. It is Kuntaka who did the historical study of the theory of Vakrokti and placed it in a very significant theory of poetry. He made differences between the language of poetry and the language of everyday life
with the reference of Vakrokti. According to him Vakrokti is a distinguishing factor of poetry and it is one of the basic qualities of poetic language, it makes the composition of words a poem. He is the true successor of Bhamaha and established Vakrokti as distinctive characteristics of all alamkaras. His concept of Vakrokti also guides the poet to select the words while composing a piece of poem. This idea is peculiar to poetry.
Meaning of vakrokti :
Vakra (वक्र)→'crooked', 'twisted', or (unique')
Úkti (उक्ति) →'expression' or 'speech'
So, Vakrokti means “a uniquely curved or artful mode of expression."
It is not mere distortion of words but a creative deviation that makes ordinary language poetic.
Kuntaka says that every good poem has some element of vakratā that differentiates it from normal communication.
Kuntaka, like many other theorists, also accepted the traditional definition of poetry.
And this definition says that the great juxtaposition and interwovenness of the sabda and artha makes apiece poetry. But Kuntaka claimed that this interwoven relation of sabda and artha should have a quality of Vakrata or Vaichitra. According to him the vakrota or vakrotva is the very quality of poetry and it brings pleasure in the mind of the reader after or while one is reading the poem. Vakrota is the very essence of the poetic speech or what is known as Kavyokti and it makes the life of a poetry what is known as Jivita. And that is why the title of his book is Vakrokti-Jivita, it is a biography of poetry, the title shows it talks about everything of a poetry. It speaks about the being and becoming and after life of a poem.
According to him Vakrokti is a matter of Vaidagdhya or intelligence, but not only that, it
depends of the style or how the intelligence will create this matter, therefore he says that the Vakrokti is Vaidagdhya-bhangi-bhanita (Rao, Sreenivas;). Therefore, the successful creation of Vakrokti in poetry depends on the talent and skill or craftsmanship of a poet, what is known as Kavi-Koushala (poetic art). This is how Kuntaka relates the talent, skill or craftsmanship of the poet to create a
successful poem which will be very unique in creating meaning and expression.
• Two important Aspects of Artistic deviation
1.Linguistic Aspect (भाषिक पक्ष) The way words are arranged, chosen, and expressed.
2. Psychological Aspect (मानसिक पक्ष) The poet's creative mind and imagination that produce a unique perception of reality.
The union of these two gives rise to poetic language, full of freshness and emotional flavor.
• kuntak's idea on vakrokti :
According to Kuntaka Vakrokti is created by “Baidagdhabhangibhanitiruchyate”, which means a poetic talent with his own creative power creates such attractive subject which being earthly, sounds heavenly to the rasika or to the readers who has authority to accomplish. Swabhabvokti defines or
represents things or objects as it is there in the world of reality. Kuntaka argues there is
no credit of creating Swabhabokti because it does not bring any uniqueness in the poetic thought and alamkara also cannot perform its role here in the Swabhabokti. Alamkara makes the object beautiful by putting the elements which are not there in the object.
Shabda and the Artha make the body of poetry. It can be beautiful with the vakrokti. The cleverness of words should not cover the beauty of the poem. Tadwidgana, means the group of scholars who understand poetry will evaluate this highest art of creation of poetry in a poet.
Kuntaka defines poetry by saying that it is “word and sense together enshrined in a style revealing the artistic creativity of the poet on the one hand and giving delight to the man of taste on the other” (Devy, Ganesh;). This definition of poetry shows that Kuntaka carried the lineage of knowledge on Indian poetics. The previous thoughts propagated by different schools are adapted in Kuntaka’s theory on poetry. He mentions that the meaning is signified and word signifies the meaning. He elaborated his idea on word, meaning, style, metaphor and poetic language. And later he describes the good qualities of true poetry. A good poetry is something which has a unique expression, meaning which delights the readers. A poet can make a mere word unique with his creative talent. Words and meanings are adorned in poetry and they appear as an ‘artistic turn of speech’.
• Type of vakrokti :
1 .Varņa-vinyāsa-vakratā (वर्णविन्यासवक्रता)
Beauty in sound arrangement, like alliteration, rhythm, or musicality.
2.Pada-pürvärddha-vakratä (पदपूर्वार्धवक्रता)
Beauty in word choice or creative use of
Using rare or surprising words for freshness.
3.Pada-parārddha-vakratā (पदपरार्धवक्रता)
Beauty in word endings or grammatical twists.
4.Väkya-vakrată (वाक्यवक्रता)
Beauty in sentence structure word order, syntax, or phrasing.
5.Prakarana-vakrată (प्रकरणवक्ररा)
Beauty in composition or episode arrangement.
6.Prabandha-vakratā (प्रबन्धवक्रता)
Beauty in the entire work's structure its theme, tone, and harmony.
There are different types of Vakrokti suggested by Kuntaka in his Vakrokti-Jivitam Those are, Phonetic figurativeness (Varnavinyasa Vakrata), Lexical figurativeness (padapurvardha Vakrata), Grammatical figurativeness (pratyaya vakrata), Sentential Figurativeness (Vakyavakrata), Contextual figurativeness (Prakarana vakrata), and Compositional figurativeness (Prabandha
vakrata).
• Marga or Riti or Style and Guna
According to Kuntaka, 'Sukumara Marga’ is an essential condition of Kavya. Beside
Sukumara Marga, he talks about Bichitra Marga and he explains the characteristics in ten Karikas. There are another Marga which is created by the characteristics of both the above said Margas, and that is Ubhayatmak Marga. Kuntaka talks about four kinds of Guna. Those are Madhurya, Prasada, Lavanya and
Abhijatya. For example he took references from Kalidasa. Later he mentioned two more Guna, Auchitya and Soubhagya and these Gunas are common to all the above three margas.
Conclusion
Kuntaka after Bhatrihari, is the most brilliant and rare talent who contributed enormously on the discourse of language study and also on the discourse of poetic language or literary language. In his
understanding vakrokti is the vaidagdhyam bhangi or it is deviated or alternative to the
speech act of the common people. With his study of poetic language he suggested the how of the birth of beauty. He is that genius in Indian poetics who extends himself from language study to aesthetics to adaptation theory, to translation theory what we deal with now can be rooted in Kuntaka’s work also. The different types of Vakrokti that he classified are methods of criticism of literature also. It is actually literary discourse proposed by him. He suggested a complete structure of literary study. But not only limited into that he was concerned about the reader’s response, though it is the major concern of all the Sanskrit rhetoricians. Vakrokti is Kavi-Kushalata, art and talent of the poet and poet’s creativity is termed as “Kavi-vyapara-vakrata, or art in the poetic process and this is the primary condition of a successful poetry” and therefore rasanubhuti comes into the mind of Sahridaya or the readers (Rao, Sreenivas;). Kuntaka has balanced between the poet’s role and reader’s role in appreciation of poetry. The point of view of the poet and the reader’s accomplishment both are necessary for the emergence of rasanubhuti, according to Kuntaka.
✍️ Home Assignment :
Q 2 Identify 4 kind of meaning according to practical criticism by 'I A Richard'
Introduction :
Practical criticism is a form of literary analysis which focuses exclusively on the text, ignoring such extraneous factors as authorial intention and historical context. authorial intention.
It began in the 1920s with a series of experiments by the Cambridge critic I.A. Richards.
About the critic :
I. A. Richards (1893–1979), here is a clear introduction to him as an author and critic:
Introduction to I. A. Richards
I. A. Richards was an influential English literary critic, theorist, and teacher. He is considered one of the founders of modern literary criticism and played a key role in developing the method known as Practical Criticism. His work greatly shaped 20th-century critical theory and the study of English literature.
As an Author
Richards wrote several important books that changed the way literature was studied:
Practical Criticism (1929) – Introduced a scientific and analytical approach to reading poetry without background information.
The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) – Explained how literature affects readers psychologically.
Science and Poetry (1926) – Discussed the relationship between scientific and poetic language.
The Meaning of Meaning (with C. K. Ogden) – A foundational text in semantics and communication theory.
His writing focuses on language, meaning, psychology, and how readers respond to literature.
As a Critic
Founder of Practical Criticism, encouraging close reading of texts.
Emphasized the importance of analyzing language, tone, imagery, and structure.
Helped lay the foundation for the movement later known as New Criticism.
Believed literature helps balance human emotions and improve moral understanding.
Importance
I. A. Richards transformed literary studies by shifting attention from the author’s biography to the text itself. His methods are still widely used in literary analysis today.
• Practical criticism : About the Essay :
(1929) – Introduced a scientific and analytical approach to reading poetry without background information.
In this Essay divided into three parts.
1) Four kind of meaning
2) Two Use of Language
3) on simile, metaphor, and symbol
(Hear we are discuss the parts 1)
The Four Kinds of Meaning in Practical Criticism
(Proposed by I. A. Richards)
In Practical Criticism, I. A. Richards explains that a poem does not communicate in just one way. It conveys meaning on four different levels simultaneously. A proper interpretation of poetry must consider all four kinds of meaning together.
1. Sense
Definition:
Sense is the literal meaning of the words — what the poem is saying directly.
Explanation:
It refers to the plain, dictionary meaning of the statements. It includes the subject matter, the ideas, and the factual content expressed in the poem.
Example:
If a poem says, “The sun rises in the east,” the sense is simply the statement about the sun rising.
Importance:
Sense forms the basic foundation of meaning. Without understanding the sense, the deeper meanings cannot be properly understood.
2. Feeling
Definition:
Feeling refers to the emotional attitude of the writer toward the subject.
Explanation:
It shows how the poet feels about what he or she is describing. The same subject can be described with joy, sadness, anger, fear, or admiration. These emotions shape the language and imagery of the poem.
Example:
If a poet writes about autumn:
Importance:
Feeling gives emotional color to the poem. It helps readers understand the poet’s inner response to the subject.
3. Tone
Definition:
Tone is the poet’s attitude toward the reader.
Explanation:
It reflects how the poet addresses the audience — respectfully, ironically, humorously, angrily, formally, or intimately.
Tone depends on:
Word choice
Style
Sentence structure
Level of seriousness
Example:
A poet may speak:
Like a teacher (serious tone)
Like a friend (friendly tone)
Like a critic (sarcastic tone)
Importance:
Tone shapes the relationship between the writer and the reader. Misunderstanding tone often leads to misinterpretation.
4. Intention
Definition:
Intention is the poet’s purpose or aim in writing the poem.
Explanation:
It answers the question: What is the poet trying to achieve?
The intention may be:
To express emotion
To persuade
To criticize society
To entertain
To inspire reflection
Example:
A patriotic poem may intend to inspire national pride.
A satirical poem may intend to criticize social problems.
Importance:
Understanding intention helps readers grasp the overall effect the poem seeks to create.
Conclusion
According to I. A. Richards, these four kinds of meaning — Sense, Feeling, Tone, and Intention — operate together in every poem. A complete and accurate interpretation requires attention to all four aspects, because focusing on only one may lead to misunderstanding.
✍️ Essay
Q 3 write note on the Dhvani theory by Anandvardhan.
Introduction :
Anandavardhana was a 9th-century Kashmiri Sanskrit poet and literary critic. He is one of the greatest theorists of Indian poetics. His most famous work is Dhvanyaloka, in which he introduced and systematically explained the theory of Dhvani (suggestion).
According to Anandavardhana, the true beauty and soul of poetry lies not in the literal meaning of words but in the suggested meaning (Dhvani). This revolutionary idea changed the course of Sanskrit literary criticism.
Meaning of Dhvani
The word Dhvani literally means “sound” or “resonance.” In literary theory, it means:
The suggested or implied meaning which goes beyond the literal meaning of words.
When we read poetry, sometimes the words convey more than what they directly say. That deeper, suggested meaning is called Dhvani.
•Anandavardhana declared:
“Dhvani is the soul (Ātman) of poetry.”
• Definition of Dhvani
When the literal meaning (Vācya) becomes secondary and a deeper suggested meaning (Vyangya) becomes prominent, it is called Dhvani.
• Types and Classification of Dhvani
Anandavardhana classified Dhvani mainly into three type
Anandavardhana, in his seminal work Dhvanyaloka, established Dhvani (suggestion) as the soul (ātman) of poetry. He classified Dhvani mainly into three types based on what is suggested (vyangya):
1️⃣ Vastu-Dhvani (Suggestion of an Idea or Thought)
📌 Definition:
When the suggested meaning conveys an idea, fact, or concept beyond the literal meaning of the words.
📌 Nature:
The literal meaning (abhidhā) is understood.
But the real poetic charm lies in the suggested idea.
The suggestion may express advice, hidden intention, irony, or deeper philosophical thought.
📌 Example:
A poet says:
"The night has grown deep."
Literal meaning: It is late at night.
Suggested meaning: It is time for lovers to meet / time to depart / danger is near (depending on context).
Thus, the emphasis is on the idea implied, not on emotion or figures of speech.
📌 Importance:
Vastu-dhvani enriches poetry with intellectual depth and subtle communication.
2️⃣ Alaṅkāra-Dhvani (Suggestion of a Figure of Speech)
📌 Definition:
When the suggested meaning primarily reveals an implied poetic figure (alaṅkāra) rather than stating it directly.
📌 Nature:
The figure of speech is not openly expressed.
It emerges subtly through suggestion.
The beauty lies in perceiving the hidden metaphor, simile, irony, etc.
📌 Example:
If a poet says:
"Her face shamed the moon."
The suggested meaning may imply a metaphor (rūpaka) or simile (upamā) that is not directly structured but understood through context.
📌 Importance:
Here, poetic ornamentation becomes effective through suggestion rather than direct statement.
3️⃣ Rasa-Dhvani (Suggestion of Emotion – The Highest Type)
📌 Definition:
When the suggested meaning evokes a rasa (aesthetic emotion), it is called Rasa-Dhvani.
📌 Nature:
The literal meaning becomes secondary.
The ultimate aim is to evoke a dominant emotional flavor (śṛṅgāra, karuṇa, vīra, etc.).
Emotional experience is suggested rather than described.
📌 Example:
A heroine waiting for her lover is described as:
"She counts the fading stars as dawn approaches."
Literal meaning: She is awake till morning.
Suggested meaning: Intense longing and love (Śṛṅgāra rasa).
📌 Why It Is Supreme:
Anandavardhana clearly states that Rasa-Dhvani is the highest form of poetry, because:
Poetry’s ultimate goal is aesthetic experience (rasa).
Other types (Vastu and Alaṅkāra) are secondary.
Great poetry primarily evokes emotional relish.
• Dhvani evolved from a subtle idea in early Sanskrit poetry to a full literary theory:
Early texts: Hinted at the power of suggestion in poetry (Nāṭyaśāstra).
Anandavardhana (9th c.): Systematized Dhvani in Dhvanyāloka—suggested meaning evokes rasa.
Abhinavagupta (10–11th c.): Linked Dhvani with emotional experience, making it central to aesthetics.
Legacy: Became the foundation of Indian literary criticism, emphasizing suggestion over literal meaning.
• three type of Dhvani kavya classification :
1 ) Abhidha
Chitra Kavya (चित्रकाव्य)
Focus: Form and ornamentation (alankaras, wordplay, visual patterns).
Feature: Pleases eye and intellect more than heart.
Importance: Lowest in Anandavardhana’s hierarchy.
2 Mdhayam kavya
. Gunibhut Kavya (गुणिभूत काव्य)
Focus: Meaning, virtues, and emotions (rasas, morals).
Feature: Appeals to mind and heart, richer than Chitra.
Importance: Higher than Chitra but below Dhvani.
3 uttam kavya
Dhvani Kavya (ध्वनिकाव्य)
Focus: Suggested meaning (Dhvani), especially Rasa-Dhvani.
Feature: Evokes deep aesthetic pleasure and emotions.
Importance: Supreme; essence of true poetry.
Conclusion
Anaadvardh’s Dhvani Theory concludes that the essence of poetry is suggestive expression, where the power of a work lies in its ability to imply meaning and evoke rasa, rather than merely describing facts. This makes poetry a subtle, evocative art form that transcends literal language.
Comments
Post a Comment